Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is an educational approach where students acquire content alongside language through a subject course taught in an additional language. For CLIL to be effective, there needs to be a focus on both language and content (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010), as research from immersion programmes consistently indicates that incidental exposure to language during delivery of subject lessons is insufficient to develop the accuracy needed for proficient L2 communication (Lyster, 2007). Subject teachers often struggle to teach language, prioritising content delivery at the expense of language development and avoiding any overt focus on language forms (Villabona & Cenoz, 2021, p.3).
In bilingual contexts, it is important to supplement the delivery of content with language teaching strategies, as students need a threshold level of second language (L2) proficiency to access subject content (Naves, 2009). Resorting to first language (L1) translations as a substitute for L2 learning is likely to hinder long-term language development, since the ability to comprehend content without engaging with the target language undermines language acquisition—the very goal of content-based instruction (Swain, 1998). Similarly, a heavy reliance on visual-paralinguistic aids also tends to lead students to avoid engaging with the language, ultimately jeopardising L2 acquisition (Lyster, 2007).
Meaningful and interactive language use should always be a priority, and the students’ first language should serve only as a “compensatory measure” for clarifying concepts or managing tasks (Ling, 2023, p.51). Studies of Canadian immersion programmes have shown that learners who are surrounded by environments rich in L2 discourse achieve significantly higher levels of language proficiency compared to those in standard programmes (Netten and Germain, 2003). Given these considerations, what could CLIL look like in the classroom, and what simple, practical, but effective strategies can support subject teachers?
1. Creating a Language-Rich Environment
Content should be taught in settings where students must engage with the language to grasp the concepts. L1 translations should be a last resort if communication breaks down or when explanations are beyond students’ current proficiency levels. If used, visual aids should support but never replace language comprehension. They should provide clues that students may use to unpack the meaning of language without allowing them to bypass it altogether in their pursuit of comprehension.
2. Provide Comprehensible Input Within the ZPD
Classroom language should fall within students’ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to provide enough challenge without overwhelming them. Comprehension should then be scaffolded using strategies such as paraphrasing, speaking slowly, using shorter phrases, pausing frequently to give enough time for students to process the input, and repeating keywords and key structures throughout the lesson.
(In a History context)
Teacher: What’s his place of birth?
Students: …
Teacher: Where was he born? […] He was born, where?
Students: In Italy.
Teacher: Yes, Italy is his place of birth. What is your place of birth, Max?
3. Maximising Opportunities for L2 Use
For higher levels of acquisition to occur, learners should produce language, not simply be exposed to it (Swain, 1993). Activities could include presentations, group discussions, open-ended questions seeking an opinion, a justification or a reason, and written assignments with language support. Teachers should encourage varied interaction types, including tasks in context-reduced conditions (e.g., writing), as contextual clues that normally scaffold oral interaction are often used by students as communication strategies to compensate for gaps in language proficiency (Lyster, 2007).
(In a Music context)
Teacher: What instruments can you see?
Students: Clarinets, flutes… bassoons.
Teacher: That’s right. They are all… what type of instruments?
Students: Woodwind instruments.
Teacher: Correct! Why is that?
Students: You blow in them. Some are made of wood. […]
4. Drawing Attention to Key Features of Language
Teachers should proactively draw learners’ attention to features of language to support acquisition. Techniques like highlighting key language, repeating key terms, and calling attention to specific forms during lessons can all help students to ‘notice’ the language, making it more impactful and easier to recall (Schmidt, 1990).
(In a PE context)
Teacher: See, when I do this (demonstrates), I am dribbling the ball. What am I doing?
Students: Dribbling.
Teacher: Exactly! Am I dribbling it now?
Students: No.
Teacher: No, I’m not. I’m holding it.
5. Providing Timely and Effective Feedback
Obviously, feedback is critical. Effective feedback is even more important. Two well-supported methods of providing real-time feedback on language during interaction are recasting and prompting. Recasting involves repeating a student’s incorrect utterance in the correct form. While unobtrusive, it can be overlooked by students focused on meaning or interpreted as an alternative rather than an actual correction. Prompting, on the other hand, encourages students to self-correct, leading to deeper processing and restructuring of their interlanguage. Although there is a general belief that learners should not be interrupted during tasks, research indicates that corrective feedback is most effective when delivered ‘in the heat of the moment’ (Lyster, 2007), as this maximises relevance and prevents the risks of teaching language forms that are irrelevant or already known to students.
(Recasting)
Student: Yesterday, I go to supermarket.
Teacher: Oh, you went to the supermarket. What did you buy?
Student: I no buy, just look.
Teacher: Ah, you didn’t buy anything. You just had a look, right?
Student: Yes, didn’t buy anything.
(Prompting)
Student: Yesterday, I go to supermarket.
Teacher: You go (emphasis) to the supermarket?
Student: […], I went to supermarket.
Teacher: The…
Student: I went to the supermarket.
Teacher: You went to the supermarket. Nice! What did you buy?
CLIL can provide students with opportunities to achieve higher levels of L2 proficiency, but its effectiveness is dependent on a balance between language and content. The L2 teaching strategies suggested in this article are different ways in which subject teachers can direct more attention to language forms while covering content. The implementation of such classroom techniques is likely to result in improved levels of L2 acquisition and retention—a priority for students who join schools at different stages of language acquisition and struggle to meet the linguistic demands of their academic journeys.
“Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is an educational approach where students acquire content alongside language through a subject course taught in an additional language.”
